“We were not prepared for the Covid-19 crisis, and we are even less prepared for the looming consequences of on-going and worsening challenges such as climate change, biodiversity collapse, life-shortening air pollution, and ocean acidification,” Mr Gurría said in a statement to mark Earth Day.

As governments plan how to help economies recover from the Covid 19 pandemic, stimulus packages need to be aligned with ambitious policies to tackle climate change and environmental damage, he said.

“We need to stop building new infrastructure and capital assets that will lock in carbon-intensive systems that undermine long-term climate objectives.” He added that the support provided to companies should be increasingly accompanied by stronger environmental standards.

A new OECD policy paper shows how improving environmental health through cleaner air and water, better sanitation, and the protection of biodiversity, will reduce the vulnerability of communities to pandemics.

Exposure to air pollution increases the risk of cardiovascular, respiratory and other diseases. Water access and quality and biodiversity protection are key to battling the spread of pandemics, while effective waste management is essential to minimise possible secondary impacts on people’s health and the environment, the paper adds. Air pollution is the world’s single largest environmental health risk. An estimated nine out of 10 people breathe air containing high levels of pollutants, according to World Health Organisation (WHO) estimates.

The paper says people suffering from preconditions linked to air pollution are more vulnerable to the effects of the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus. While the understanding of the epidemiology of COVID-19 is still evolving, a Harvard University study conducted in the United States identified a large overlap between causes of deaths of COVID-19 patients and the diseases that are linked to long-term exposure to fine particulate matter in the atmosphere.

In two out of three OECD countries, the mean population exposure to fine particulate matter exceeds the WHO guideline of 10 μg/m3, a value which is still associated with elevated levels of risk.

The paper, Environmental health and strengthening resilience to pandemics, recommends governments develop comprehensive strategies to achieve air quality objectives, including through better integration of land use planning, transport and environmental policies.

Access to clean water is key to reducing the transmission of infectious diseases but an estimated 4.2 billion people globally do not have safely managed sanitation services and providing universal access requires significant time and resources. The OECD says short-term options should be employed, such as public fountains and standpipes. Safe water should be readily provided in healthcare centres, schools, transportation hubs, and other community buildings.

The OECD says public support may be required to ensure water utilities have the financial resources to operate and continue to deliver safe water and sanitation services. It also recommends systematically screening and sharing information on SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater before treatment, to help provide an early warning system on the health of the connected population.